Cadastral Survey System

The cadastral survey system is a surveying method used in many states of the U.S. to establish legal descriptions of land. When Herbert Bartist Beck homesteaded land in Montana, he received land patents, which used the cadastral survey system to describe the land, for example:

• South half of the northeast quarter of Section 34 in Township 20 North, Range 24 East
• Southeast quarter of the southeast quarter of Section 31 in Township 20 North, Range 25 East
• West half of the southeast quarter of Section 32 in Township 20 North, Range 25 East
• East half of the southwest quarter of Section 32 in Township 20 North, Range 25 East
• Southwest quarter of the southwest quarter of Section 32 in Township 20 North, Range 25 East
• Lot 4 of Section 5 in Township 19 North, Range 25 East
• Lot 1 of Section 6 in Township 19 North, Range 25 East

Townships were arranged north and south along a principal meridian and Ranges were arranged east and west along the baseline. Each Township was divided into 36 sections, which were 6 square miles in size. Therefore each section was one square mile, comprising 640 acres of land. Sections may be divided in half or in quarters and sold separately. When communities or municipalities were created, sections were further divided into lots.

Map of the U.S. indicating the principal meridians and baselines for each state
that used the cadastral survey system; courtesy of the Bureau of Land
Management

By knowing the legal descriptions of the land contained in the patents Herbert Bartist Beck purchased from the General Land Office, we can determine exactly where his land was.

_______________

'Map of the U.S. indicated the principal meridians and baselines,' Bureau of Land Management

Creoles: A Social Experiment

Russians began exploring Alaska during the reign of Peter I "the Great." Soon they began establishing trading posts in order to acquire furs from the Native Alaskan people. Eventually, the Russian-American Company was established to maximize the economic potential of Alaska for the benefit of Russia. As a result most of the Russians, who came to Alaska, were men. Michele Morseth explains the Creole Estate in her book, Puyulek Pu'irtuq! The People of the Volcanoes:

"As the number of persons of mixed ancestry...with some education provided through the efforts of their fathers and grandfathers grew, the company established guidelines for a social experiment -- creation of a social stratum with loyalties both to Alaska and to the Russian culture and state. Thus, the Creole estate was officially established...The company recognized that children of Russian males and aboriginal females would create unbreakable bonds between the new colony and the old country. In 1816 the main office of the Russian-American Company explained the program:

'From a political point of view, the ties of the Russians with the Aleuts are nearly essential, both for exposing hostile schemes, and for permanent ties, for the resultant offspring willy-nilly join those Aleuts who are related to the Russians and the children, being christened, will be Russians, and not Aleuts, and so the new generation is permanently Russian...The lack of Russian people in the colonies can be compensated for...Creoles, brought up and educated at the Company's cost and effort, thereafter employed in the various capacities, or carrying on its business, can obtain food and livelihood.

The Creoles comprise a particular class and enjoy all the privileges of the lower middle class accorded by Russian law. There is this difference -- they do not pay taxes and are not attached to the government by any formal tie; when they have been educated by the company, they must serve it for a period of ten years. The company has undertaken the education of this class with praiseworthy energy; many Creoles have studied at higher institutions of learning in St. Petersburg or have been instructed in various branches of the arts and sciences. Many have received their education in the colonies and are considered to be almost the equal of the Russians. Most of the Creoles hold responsible positions, among them, for example, are the post of bookkeeper, warehouse overseer, captain's assistant and the position of captain itself, church officials, etc. All Creoles are conversant in Russian, but not with the Aleut nor the Kodiak languages. Their way of life is the same as that of the Russians'."

In reality the Creoles of Alaska were in a somewhat ambiguous position. Native Alaskans showed them disrespect as they were products of illegal unions with the natives. Toward the end of the Russian rule, they reversed their Creole policy and encouraged most Creoles to live a native lifestyle.

After the United States purchased Alaska in 1867, most Russian-born men returned home. Some Creoles joined them, but it is believed most stayed in Alaska. Soon after the transfer of Alaska to the United States, scientist, William Dall, referred to Creoles as "half breeds," saying they were "unfit to exercise franchise as American citizens." He failed to realize they were educated and had filled many important positions within the Russian-American Company.

_______________
Morseth, Michele. Puyulek Pu'irtuq! The People of the Volcanoes, (Hong Kong: National Park Service, 1998), pages 1-207

Cajun or Cerole? What's the Difference?

One of the granddaughters of Armita Marie Alleman, my grand uncle Henry Muir's second wife, always heard her grandmother was a full-blooded Native American. As she digs into her family history, she's finding out that may not be true. Her grandmother's race was always listed as "W" for white on the census forms, but she was from Acadia Parish. So was she Creole or Cajun and what's the difference anyway?

"Creole in a Red Turban" by Jacques Aman, circa 1840; image courtesy
Wikipedia

I learned it's pretty easy to determine the difference between Creole and Cajun food; Creole cuisine uses tomatoes, Cajun doesn't. People, well, that's not as easy.

When the French settlers moved to Louisiana, the placage system was set up due to a shortage of accessible white women. The French wanted to expand its population in the new world, however men were not expected to marry until their early thirties and premarital sex was inconceivable. African woman soon became the concubines of white male colonists, which in some cases they happened to be sons of noblemen, military men, plantation owners, etc. Soon, wealthy white Creole men would marry and, in some cases, they would possess two families. One with the white woman to which they were legally married, and one with their mistress of color. The offspring from their mistresses were then grouped into a new class of creoles known as gens de couleur, or free people of color. This class of people would soon expand when refugees from Haiti and other French speaking colonies would migrate to New Orleans, effectively creating a new middle class between the white French Creoles and slaves.

Courtesy of Google

This class of colored people was unique to the South as they were not in the same category as African slaves. They were elite members of society who were often leaders in business, agriculture, politics, and the arts. At one time the center of their residential community was the French Quarter. Many were educated, owned their own property and businesses. Additionally, some were even slave-owners. They formed a third class in the slave society. This meant that in the pre-civil war era, race was mainly divided into four categories. These were white, black, creoles, and free people of color. French Creoles objected to the fact that the term Creole was used to describe Free People of Color but their culture and ideals were often mirrored by them. French Creoles spoke French while Black Creoles spoke Louisiana Creole which was a mixture of English, French, African or Spanish. The end of the civil war was a threat to the Louisiana Creoles of Color because this brought about the two-tiered class system that existed in the rest of the country that was divided predominately by race: black and white.

Cajuns, on the other hand, are any descendant of Acadian exiles (French-speaking Canadians from the Maritime provinces) who lived in the southern bayou region of Louisiana. They can be any race.

Courtesy of Google

Cajuns began arriving in Louisiana during the French and Indian War. Their forced expulsion by the British was part of the its military campaign again New France, French territories in Canada. It is thought that over 11,000 people out of 14,000 were deported during what became known as the Great Expulsion.

_______________
I learned when researching the cultural history of Russians in Alaska, they also used the term "creole" to define people with mixed Russian and Native Alaskan blood.

Adoption in Scotland

Adoptions in Scotland at the time John and Henrietta Rennie adopted Samuel Dunn were informal affairs up until 1930. The Adoption of Children (Scotland) Act of 1930 introduced legal adoption. Since then adoptions are typically arranged by charitable organizations or the social work departments of local authorities.

Before 1930 adoptions were arranged on a private basis, between individuals or charitable organizations. We do not know how Samuel Dunn came to John and Henrietta Rennie. Were his parents friends? Did the Rennies work though a charity?